Social construction of male and female identities

Social construction of male and female identities To understand gender analysis in a historic context, it will be important to start off by defining what gender is and gender analysis. Gender refers to the social construction of male and female identities. It is more than the biological make up of the two sexes. It deals with how the differences between men and women, whether real or imagined, are valued, used and relied upon to classify men and women and to assign them roles and expectations. The effect of this categorization is that the lives and experiences of men and women occur within complex sets of differing social and cultural expectations. Gender analysis therefore examines the differences in mens and womens lives and applies this understanding to policy development and service delivery (Zastrow Kirst-Ashman 2009). In history, the current understanding of gender as a category of historical analysis can be traced to the late twentieth -century feminist political mobilization that occurred in Europe and the United States which led to the development of the field of womens history both as a product and practice. Many of the early women historians in many cases employed the category women when talking about womens roles, perceptions of women or myths about women as opposed to the analytical language of gender as we know it today (Parker Aggleton 1998). Most of these embraced the concept of gender closely akin to Gayle Rubins classic early formulation that stated that in every society, there is a set of arrangements by which the biological human sex and procreation is shaped by human, social intervention which is actually gender (Shepard Walker 2009). The work of the feminists was primarily to expose those gender systems and redress their injustices to women. In this context therefore the work of the womens historians was to discover and bring into the public domain such patterns in the past, to return women and their activities to the historical record and to bring out ways in which women in the past tried to resist sexual oppression in the societies within which they lived. Despite the fact that distinction between sex and gender remained common in feminist history, its framework had many critics especially among theorists who questioned if physical bodies were not in a way socially constructed and whether they ever existed apart from culturally fashioned meanings about them (Shepard Walker 2009). Early women historians equated gender with sex. This meant that the physical body is what they used to classify gender. This was the bone of contention with other scholars who rightly asserted that it would be simplistic to equate gender with sex. However, since the field of womens history originated in social history, and so because the early womens history did not seriously interrogate bodies as a historic subject, most of the early women historian did not confront the dilemma of the sex/gender distinction which continued to inform the assumptions of their work (Shepard Walker 2009). Theorizing about gender increased from the 1970s through the 1980s among women historians but their emphasis was more on the relation of gender to other categories, more so class and patriarchy but not on so much on the gender itself. According to Shepard Walker (2009) efforts of this sort continued in many ways to conceptual gender, class and other social processes as distinct which made it difficult to capture the complexity and particularity of their unified processes in a specific historical circumstance. In absence pf a standard definition of what constituted gender, historians continued to write about gender from the Western cultural view of what constitutes gender. However by 1980s other issues had come up that challenged this position calling for a more inclusive approach. An analysis of gender and history has also focused on the position of the woman during colonialism in Africa and elsewhere. The woman was seen first as a daughter, then as a woman and finally as a prostitute. Any woman who stayed alone was seen as a prostitute. Women were seen as safe when within the confines of their home in the countryside. Those in towns were stereotyped as being of loose morals and rebels. Although the fuller investigation of these points would follow in the studies of gender and colonialism of the 1990s, scholars of race and slavery in the Americas and Europe were zealous in pointing out that the bodies of colored women had been socially constructed to meet the interests of Europeans since the first colonial contacts. Still in the 1980s the field of womens history was thriving. By this time it supported influential journals in Europe and in the United States. Works in womens history were beginning to appear on the lists of major publishers and also in prominent general historical journals. It was however not all rosy. Critics within the profession questioned the legitimacy of the field of women history and its practitioners. Women history was described as narrow, over-specialized and immaterial to the truly important matter of history (Downs 2004). Womens historians were accused of trying to fashion their own life frustrations into a respected field. A more unifying concept of gender free of activism might as a matter of fact provide legitimacy for the field and its practitioners (Shepard Walker 2009). If gender could be argued out as a key field of experience for both all persons, then gender is a subject of universal relevance. Joan Scottss (1986) article titled Gender: A Useful Concept of Historical Analysis, which appeared on the American Historical Review, December 1986 issue, was written in this political context. This was a no mean achievement for a prestigious conservative journal. Scott noted that the proliferation of case studies in womens history called for some synthesizing perspective and the discrepancy between the high quality of the work then in womens history and the continued marginal status of the field as a whole pointed up the limits of descriptive approaches that do not address dominant disciplinary concepts in terms that can shake their power and transform them. The articles purpose was to examine the implications of feminists growing tendency to use gender as a way of referring to the social organization between the sexes and to offer a useable theoretical f ormulation of gender as a category of historical analysis. Scott found the feminist theorizing of the 1960s and 1970s limited because they tended to contain reductive or simple generalizations that undercut both historys disciplinary sense of the complexity of social causation and feminist commitments to analysis that would lead to change (Scott 1986). According to Scott, historically gender has been used as a primary way of signifying relations of power (Scott1999). The power in question is the power of domination and subordination; differential control over or access to material and symbolic resources. Emphasis is laid on the difference as a characteristic of power derived from the oppositional binarity of gender, but it also defined and limited the concept of gender which having been defined could not operate other than as a vehicle for this power. Women in most societies have been dominated by men. However this proposition is challenged by a number of non western scholars who argue that not all societies organized on the basis of gender as implied in the work of most Western historians. Oyeronke Oyeyumi (2005), an African Historian from Nigeria is one of them. Oyeyumi argues that Western work on gender has been and continues to be preoccupied with the oppositionally sexed body, which in inhabit the category gender and invests it with a rigid corporeal determinism. This she argues is not universal but specific to the western cultures and history. If gender is socially constructed, then it cannot behave in the same way across time and space. Therefore if gender is a social construction there must be a specific time in each culture when it began and therefore the time before this beginning it never did exist. Thus gender as a social construction is also a historical and cultural phenomenon which may presumably have not existed in some societies. In a similar view, Ifi Amadiume (1987) criticized the use of Western gender concept as a category for analyzing Africa history of gender. She argues that the ethnocentricity of gender of early feminist anthropology does not have a bearing on African societies. To these groups she argues the social and cultural inferiority of women was not questionable. In her work among the Igbo culture in eastern Nigeria, Amadiume did identify a gender system through which numerous mythical, social and culture distinctions were articulated according to a binary of masculine and feminine. But she also did establish that in this binary the attributes associated with females did not necessarily lead to economic or political subordination of the social group women and that the social institutions, especially those of male daughters and female husbands permitted individual females to enjoy those privileges of social positions gendered masculine. In the United States, intervening decades have given birth to a rich and expanding scholarship on the history of colored women. The colored slave woman owed his master and the men his master had selected for her sexual favors and reproductive services on top of the labor (Gerald, N.G., Billias, G.A 1991). The work written on the colored woman history is however minimal compared to what have been written on white women. Furthermore much of the work done on colored women still subordinates them within the history of white women. What that means is that American historians, until very recently, have showed little interest in identifying differences between West African and colonial Euro-American ideas of the social and cultural relations of the male and the female or giving interpretive authority to evidence of differences between African American and Euro-American communities over time in the United States. Of greater importance is the construction of colored women as negative markers of a Western concept of gender and the pressure borne on colored women to conform to those to that concept. To greater extent this centers the story on Western concept, not on African American women or on the understandings of gender that may have characterized their communities (Collins 1989). To illustrate further the problems in the use of gender as a category in historic analysis, North America can be studied. The early republic provides vital information because that is where U.S womens history began classics like Carroll Smith Rosenbergs Beauty, the Beast and the Militant Woman, Kathryn Kish Sklars Catharine Beecher and Nancy Cotts The Bonds of Womanhood (Cott 1997).These works sought to understand the origins of the late twentieth century trope of gender in the nineteenth-century. This was not unusual because like other historians, these women historians studied subjects in the past that were of continued relevance to their day. They focused on the social and intellectual life in the early American Republic that resonated in the female struggle. This majored on familial, political, legal, and economic subordination of women as a group by men as a group. The works continued to organize the field as it developed with works such as Women of the Republic by Linda Kerber, Daughters of Liberty by Mary Beth Norton and Good wives by Laurel Ulrich. The wives in the seventeenth and eighteenth century played a greater role in the management of the family resources. It was taken as the duty of a wife to defend and take care of the husbands investments. Wives were supposed to be aggressive in this. However during the nineteenth century, the womans role in the management of the husbands wealth diminished significantly (Cott 1997). Another milestone in the study of gender analysis is the entry of women into public jobs in the 20th century (Scharpf Schmidt 2000). This brought profound change to the woman. She got financial independence and her dependence on the man diminished. This entry into the job market went hand in hand with increased education attainment, increased civil rights like the right to vote and increased participation in the political process. These were great milestones for women that changed completely the relationship with the man. With it too came increased divorce rates, and choosing not to get married. When gender is treated as a question of analysis, it encourages the researcher to regard the sources of information more critically and more creatively. To some extent it is true that historians have been able to establish gender as a category of historic analysis. This is because the circumstances human beings operate in have expectations of behavior and conduct based on ones sexuality. These are either classified as masculinity or feminine. A man is expected to act and behave in a masculine way while the woman is supposed to portray a feminine behavior. These expectations have over the course of history shaped the relationship between the males and the females. Not only that but also within a sex, treatment is different. In America for example, An African American woman, a white woman and a native Indian woman were all treated differently.

New Hire Orientation: A New Approach Essay

It is the first day of your new job. After arriving, suddenly you flashback to the last time you were in this situation. A dreadful feeling comes over as you recall how boring and useless that first week was. Five days of your life you will never get back. It was so awful; the thought of turning around and leaving crosses your mind. Is this job really worth it? Little do you know that this time it will be different because you are working for Peabody Energy. They have just launched an innovative New Hire Orientation program that will leave a positive impression. Never again will the words New Hire Orientation cause drowsiness! New research has proven that there are better ways to introduce new employees to a company than have been practiced in the past (Hemsley, 2012). Seeking out the most efficient and effective programs is becoming common practice with most Fortune 500 companies. It is important that they get the biggest return on investment possible in this economy (Hemsley, 2012) . While there is no easy answer, the process of changing and implementing any training program is no easy task. The following analysis of Peabody Energy’s New hire Orientation will describe the process in which it was developed, the content, the format in which is administered, and finally the evaluation. After consulting with Katie Schaller, Learning & Development Representative at Peabody Energy, there were many considerations that had to be assessed before they started. Taking into account all of the negative baggage that is associated with a New Hire Orientation, they started with reviewing past surveys. They also interviewed subject matter experts from each department to identify the scope of information the new employees should receive about their respective areas. These responses helped guide the new program development. Objectives are important in any project. Starting out with solid list of expectations increases your chances of success by 300% (Morris, 2009). The fi rst step in the process, before creating the objectives, is to perform a needs assessment. This is critical to determine if the training is even necessary (Noe, 2013). This first step should confirm that the need is not a performance issue, that it covers the correct content, and that the expectations are defined (Noe, 2013). In this assessment, it is presumed that the new employee could not have a performance issue, they need to know certain information in order to function at the company, and a timeline and  budget were established. History In the past, the New Hire Orientation at Peabody consisted of spending three full days in a conference room going over procedures, watching videos, and trying to keep your eyes open. It lacked engagement and consideration for different learning styles. This was a simple evolution of the company growing much bigger and faster than was planned. The old traditional training for a company of 50 employees needed to be restructured for a company of thousands located throughout the world. Not only did the physical locations grow, but the spectrum of talent matches. The company employs everyone from miners who work below the Earth, to Vice Presidents who hardly see the sun. Understanding that there is some common knowledge that they all need in order to be effective on the job is important. Fifty years ago, the company had less than 100 people and operated in three states. Technology was hardly a consideration. Most of the general company information was learning on the job. Having such a sm all pool of resources, it was fairly easy to navigate policies and procedures in different departments. In 2002, the company began expanding internationally. This brought with it many new challenges. Cultural difference, communication barriers, and logistics are just a few. It was during this time of growth that the Human Resource Department created a designated person to handle the training and development. That was not exactly a strategic goal; it just happened to fall on the person who took the most initiative. As things progressed, it was evident that a universal New Hire Training program should be established. Fast forward to 2008 when Katie Schaller joined the team with her work cut out for her. She brings with her a wealth of relevant knowledge in the training and development field. Objectives It is in this context that objectives were created based on the company’s business goals. The goal is to onboard new employees and acclimate them to our current systems as quickly as possible using minimal resources. Focusing on that, the program needed to streamline the information and use technology. The first objective was to modify the content and consider separating certain aspect of the training into more specified sections. For instance, if they were hired for Information Technology, learning about the  different types of coal mined was beside the point. Sure, it would be nice to the difference between sub-bituminous and metallurgical, but not necessary in the first days of work. Basically a list of every job description was created and the common key words became the core of what the orientation should cover. Topics, such as the example about coal types, could be studied later in follow up training and development courses, like Coal 101. The next priority considered was learning styles. According to the study done by Claxton and Murrell, there are four approaches to learning style. They are personality, information processing, social interactions, and instructional methods. Matching a student’s preferred method to their learning style can improve the learning experience (Claxton & Murrell, 1987). Who doesn’t want to do that? Trying to encompass all of those facets is tricky. They used the surveys to find out what matters most to the new hires and decided upon a mixed approach to appeal to the masses. It would be a computer-based training with the option of meeting in person for certain lessons. One way to implement the social interaction element is to host on-site meetings for the group of new hires in the relevant departments they will be interacting with. This will give them the opportunity to meet key contacts as well as get to know the layout of the office (Brown & Rusnak, 2011). Feeling a sense of belonging is vital to succes s (Brown & Rusnak, 2011). Format This self-paced course is designed to provide new employees with information that they need to know and also information that they might want to know as they begin their career with Peabody Energy. It is offered online to allow participates to work at their own pace, from their own computer, with optional face to face discussions. They are asked to complete the dull tax paperwork portion prior to arrival. This ensures they are not bogged down with mundane tasks right off the bat. The remainder of the course should be finished within 30 days of his or her hire date. A network lunch is offered quarterly at the St. Louis office to begin to build a network with new colleagues, team members, and other key stakeholders within our organization. As mentioned earlier, meetings will be scheduled according to schedules, in each relevant department. This will allow hands on experience with the people they will be interacting with and how the processes work.  The learning objectives for this or ientation training are to understand Peabody’s mission, strategy, and history. Employees will become familiar with the company’s Total Rewards’ philosophy. They should understand how to navigate and utilize Peabody’s performance evaluation process. Recognizing Peabody Energy’s Leadership Pillars and how they are demonstrated on the job will be discussed. They will understand the company policies and procedures in areas such as information technology, security, human resources, and travel. Finally, new employees will learn where to go for information and find answers to their questions. Content Upon receiving their invitation via email, they can click on the hyperlink and sign in to begin at their convenience. At any time they can stop the training program and begin again from that point. There are 15 required subjects they need to pass and over 25 additional resource folders. The entire training of the required fields takes approximately 120 minutes. Katie Schaller welcomes with verbal instructions on how to navigate the training program and what is expected of them. Next is a recorded PowerPoint listing the course description and learning objectives. Following is a two minute welcome video from Greg Boyce, our Chairman and CEO. New employees then watch a company video discussing the importance of energy and how Peabody plays a part in the global market. Steve Callahan, Vice President of Corporate and International Human Resources, delivers a presentation explaining how Francis Peabody started the company in 1883, a historic timeline, and maps showing where our offices and mines are located around the world. The presentations continue in areas such as inclusion and diversity, company credit card and out of pocket expense policies, security, information technology, talent management, total rewards, travel policies, community relations, and compliance training. Each area is presented by someone from the respective department. After completing each section, the new employee concludes with a quiz. Upon completion of the entire training, a confidential survey is sent to the participants. This is to gain feedback on how the program was received and any improvements or changes that should be considered. Learning Theories The design of this training program considers several learning theories, all  of which assist in the transfer of information. The main Learning Theory used for this program is the Need Theory. This theory is designed for those who need to know something (Noe, 2013). Anyone experiencing a deficiency in knowledge uses this. Because this targets new employees, they are a clean slate to absorb all the new information before them. They will feel a sense of satisfaction by completing this program. There are levels of satisfaction that have created some controversy between Alderfer and Maslow. Alderfer seems to believe that if the higher level needs of satisfaction is are not met, that employees refocus on lower level needs (Noe, 2013). Other theorists talk about achievement and standards of excellence (Noe, 2013). Reinforcement theory was actually used by the design team when they tailored the program to the results of the recent new hire surveys. They avoided certain topics and added mo re of what was truly needed. They used past outcomes to determine future results. The Adult learning theory, or andragogy, is another approach used because all of the new employees are, in fact, adults. There are definite attributes of adults that have an effect on how they interpret information. Adults need to understand why they are there, they need to be self-directed, and they have a problem-centered approach. Among other qualities, they bring great work experiences to the table. Most obviously, Information Processing theory was used to influence in the internal processes that happen when information is obtained (Noe, 2013). There is scientific evidence surrounding these concepts that prove how attention is affected, perceptions are created, and coding is utilized for best retention (Noe, 2013). Evaluation The Peabody Energy New Hire Training Program uses a level two evaluation (Noe, 2013). The primary goal for the training is to teach new employees information (Noe, 2013). Therefore, the criterion that is being measured is how much information is retained. This section will outline the stages of evaluation that Peabody used when creating this program. Finally, suggestions for improvement will follow. The first step Peabody’s training team had to determine was what, if anything needed to be measured and how they were going to do that. During the initial needs assessment, they created a list of objectives, all of which can be measured. However, because this is a new-hire training specific to general organizational  information, a thorough evaluation was deemed unnecessary. The next consideration was to address how the information can be found later, if needed. Paper books are expensive and difficult to update. They created a file on the network where all of the training materia l can be found at anytime. This is easy to update and reference as needed. Regarding measuring the objectives, following each section is a quiz which they are able to take twice. While this is not a pass/fail test, it gives them an opportunity to absorb the information. Another measurement of success is following up the training with a survey to find out how well received it was. Finally, the cost-benefit analysis cannot be measured accurately. The information covered in this training is essential for new employees to be successful. The evaluation level being used in the new hire training at Peabody is level two. The sole purpose is to give information to the employees. The nature of the training does not lend itself to a deep evaluation. Enhancements to the program could be creativity, and incentive, and group projects (Carvin, 2011). By working in small groups and staying in touch with a mentor has many benefits such as new ideas and behaviors (Carvin, 2011). Closing Statement In conclusion, if you are ever so lucky as to have the opportunity and experience a New Hire Training like this one, you will not forget it. The program considers individual learning styles and offering choices. The needs assessment identified requirements, created objectives, and applied learning theories. New hires are passing their quizzes and giving positive reviews. Overall, the process in which Peabody Energy follows in creating and implementing their new hire orientation is second to none. All things considered, the Peabody Energy New Hire Orientation training is a comprehensive approach for all learning styles. It utilizes Power Point presentations, auditory narration by different employees in the organization, and face to face discussion. The new hire is allowed complete it at their own pace and/or meet with SMEs within the first 30 days of employment. The information is consistent among all new employees. The only suggestion would be that current employees participate in th is training so that they are up to date with company facts, policies, and procedures. References Brown, M., & Rusnak, C. (2010). The power of coaching. Public Manager, 39(4), 15-17. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/856127114?accountid=8065 Carvin, B. N. (2011). The hows and whys of group mentoring. Industrial and Commercial Training, 43(1), 49-52. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00197851111098162 Claxton, Charles S. and Murrell, Patricia H. Learning Styles: Implica-tions for Improving Education Practices. ASHE-ERIC HigherEducation Report No. 4, Washington, D.C.: Association for the Studyof Hither Education, 1987. Hemsley, S. (2012). Academy rewards. Human Resources, , 50. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1172596169?accountid=8065 Morris, L. (2009). Getting your money’s worth from training & development. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 14(3), 105-107. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/203905220?accountid=8065 Noe, R. (2013). Employee training and development. (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Rowold, J. (2008). Multiple effects of human resource development interventions. Journal of European Industrial Training, 32(1), 32-44. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/03090590810846557

External Analysis of the Casino Industry - 2562 Words

One of the top industries in the US is the casino industry, which is in the process of expanding into new states and increasing its market availability. There are many factors that play into the growth of the casino industry such as different rules and regulations from both the federal and state governments to go along with the business factors of technology, social acceptance and target demographic. The companies within the industry also have to look at Porters five forces to determine whether or not that the company they are in is a strong or weak one. An industry consists of a group of companies that have similar products/services, and have a similar way of delivering them to the consumer. There are many companies that make up the†¦show more content†¦By introducing electronic slot and table games into the casinos, the industry has found a way to adapt the changes of technology. Electronic slot machines and video games revolutionized the casino business, and the industry wants to exploit this cash cow to the fullest. One proposal gaining a lot of attention is the idea of a universally configurable game machine that downloads the gaming â€Å"software† -- a new slots game, or pretty much anything else -- thus eliminating the need to constantly bring in new machines and shuffle out the less popular ones. Variations on networked game play -- locally, nationally and globally -- will become more commonplace. In addition, some table games are even getting mechanized, with automated versions of roulette and craps popping up in Europe and set to test soon in the United States. (TODAY.com) By having these new electronic slot machines and other electronic games, the casino industry is able to cut down cost on having to switch out the games every time one goes out of style. Even though technology is changing everyday and is keeping some people out of the casinos, the industry as a whole is takingShow MoreRelatedMgm Case1283 Words   |  6 PagesTRM 472- BUSINESS STRATEGY | MGM MIRAGE CASE ANALYSIS | MERVE BUBLÄ °Ã…ž - 2007103241 | 22.03.2012 | I. INTRODUCTION MGM Mirage is one of the largest gaming industries in the United States and mainly located in Las Vegas, Nevada.   The first MGM Grand was established in Las Vegas, Nevada in 1973. After investing in land on the strip the company followed with Treasure Island and the Bellagio.   The MGM Mirage was created during the merger in 2000.   Since this merger, MGMRead MoreCase 33 – the Casino Industry in 2011752 Words   |  4 PagesCase 33 – The Casino Industry in 2011 Brant Davis Problem Summary The Las Vegas and Atlantic City locations have lost revenues in recent years. 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Normalcy The New Slang - 1144 Words

The Roaring Twenties were a turbulent time in American history. The United States had just returned from the carnage of World War I and was ready to revolutionize their ideas, morals, and most importantly, their presidents. The presidential election of 1920 was a particularly integral election due to the introduction of the right of women to vote and Americas social political unrest. Warren G. Harding, a Republican, defeated Democrat James M. Cox, on a platform that urged Americans to return to normalcy. Normalcy was a play on words of normality by Harding, which meant to conform to the norm. But the question that stood on many historians was: Why did Americans actually vote to return to normalcy? The simple answer was that†¦show more content†¦Each of these things worked because the American voting public wanted a less politically complicated government. The public wanted to return the good old days where war, crimes, and international affairs were the least of the countrys problems. Clearly, the American public wanted an easy going president who supported what they felt was right for the country, a break from heavy politics (post-war policies/treaties, idealism vs. capitalism, etc.). Additionally, Americans were anxious to forget about WWI and go back to an age of innocence. Americans sought to achieve that by keeping the world at bay and focused their energy internally. Americans wanted to stay neutral and rejected president Wilsons idea for a League of Nations (Clements 168). Americans also wanted a pro-business environment where the slogan was: ‘Big bucks for big businesses (Scholastic). The public desired for industrialization at a national level so that they could be less dependent on imports and earn more money by exporting. And moreover, the Republican Party candidate Harding promised a new start by isolation from European political struggles, or simply put: a return to the old ways. With that, Harding won with an overwhel ming majority. 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